Inclusive language

Academic writing should avoid making assumptions or value judgements about anyone based on their gender. These can cloud the objectivity of your writing. Many of these assumptions are implicit within language, so it is necessary to avoid terms that inappropriately or irrelevantly emphasise, discriminate, trivialise or homogenise gender, sexual orientation, racial and ethnic identity, age, diverse needs, or socio-economic background.

Academic writing is precise so it is important to be specific when describing someone with inclusivity and respect.

General guidelines for bias free language

Sometimes it is necessary to focus on aspects of a person’s identity. For example, if you are researching attitudes toward gay women in the 19th century, it would be necessary to discuss sexual orientation and gender. Often however, it is unnecessary or irrelevant to mention details about gender, sexual orientation, racial and ethnic identity, age, or diverse needs.

The overall guiding principle for inclusive, unbiased language is to describe people in a respectful way that recognises their humanity, dignity, and worth. Stereotypes and pejorative, negative, condescending, or “othering” language should be avoided. Words that describe identity traits are constantly evolving so it is important to make sure that you are using current terms; take a little time to find out what the preferred terms are.

Avoid using words or phrases which are irrelevant. For example,

I went to a function for the celebrated lady novelist.

The owners, who are a lesbian couple, say they have struggled with the restrictions on crowd numbers.

No-one would say “I went to a function for the celebrated man novelist”, so this gender identification may imply that the novelist is a dilettante - a woman who writes as a kind of elegant hobby rather than as a serious career. If you need to identify her further, use her name: I went to a function for the celebrated novelist, Keri Hulme.

It is also important to be specific when necessary. For example, when discussing age, give exact ages or ranges. When writing about people with diverse needs, you should usually name the need rather than a general issue or category of condition (e.g., people with ADHD vs. people with learning issues). Similarly, be specific with racial or ethnic groups (e.g., Chinese Americans vs. Asian Americans), and sexual orientation (e.g., gay women vs gay).

It is also respectful to use the descriptors people use to self-describe although this might not be appropriate if someone uses stigmatising or pejorative language to describe themselves. In this situation, do not use the self-described pejorative language but a more unbiased and inclusive term. Language evolves over time and there is not always agreement about what is the preferred term and this might be something you need to note in your writing.

Take care you do not inadvertently use biased language by assuming one group is normal or standard, then compare this group with other groups. For example, a false hierarchy is created when a minority group is compared with the general public or against a “normal” group; this implies the minority group is marginal to society or abnormal.

Further information about general principles for inclusive language and reducing bias can be found on the APA Style website.

Sexual orientation and gender

Sexual orientation refers to the degree and gendered direction of sexual and emotional attraction. Use “sexual orientation” rather than “sexual preference” when describing someone’s sexual identity.

Sexual orientation involves terms that frequently change so it is important to take a little time to familiarise yourself with current terms in order to write with respect and inclusivity. If possible and appropriate, use the same terms a person uses to describe themselves. It is generally a good idea to clearly define what is meant by the terms used in your writing. It is also important to be specific. For example, “gay” can be applied to all genders to refer to same sex attraction, or more narrowly to just men; be specific about what group you are referring to.

Further information and examples of bias free language when discussing sexual orientation can be found on the APA Style website.

Gender

Gender is a personal identity thread and a construct specific to a culture. It is distinct from sex, which refers to biological traits, and sexual orientation which refers to the degree and gendered direction of sexual and emotional attraction.

You should be specific about gender identity. Cisgender refers to people whose biological sex assigned at birth aligns with their gender identity. Transgender refers to people whose biological sex assigned at birth does not align with their gender identity. Some transgender people have a binary gender (i.e., man or woman) or may identify as non-binary or gender-fluid.

In general, avoid using “males” and “females” as nouns; instead use “men” and “women” or gender-appropriate words.

Pronouns

While “he” has been used historically as a generic term, it should be avoided. “He or she” is a better alternative, but it can sound awkward:

If a student finds that he or she has problems with his or her report, he or she should ask his or her lecturer for help before he or she gets thoroughly confused.

If you read in a course handout “every student should attend his classes,” the writer is either assuming that none of the students are women, or that those who are, will not mind being thought of as male. Neither assumption is safe.

A better option is to use the plural pronoun “they”:

If students find that they have problems with their reports, they should ask their lecturers for help before they get thoroughly confused.

Increasingly, however, “they” is used as a pronoun for transgendered people so care must be taken in order to avoid confusion. An explanatory footnote may be appropriate in some cases.

Compound words

Be cautious with words and phrases compounded with “man”. Like “he”, “man” used to be used in a generic sense, but there are now more appropriate words to use:

spaceman > astronaut
mankind > people, humanity
manmade > artificial
salesman > seller, sales representative

The bias may not be intentional, such as using chairman instead of chair or housewife instead of homemaker. However, it is important to avoid alienating or insulting the audience.

Diminutives

Avoid using words which use a diminutive to imply female:

usherette > usher
poetess > poet

(Neither ushers nor poets are inherently male or female.)

Other words

“Woman” and “women” are more commonly used than “lady” and “ladies”.

Ensure that paired words are equal. For example, instead of “man and wife” use either “man and woman” or “husband and wife”.

Further information and examples of bias free language when discussing gender can be found on the APA Style website.

Racial and ethnic identity

Race refers to physical differences that are considered socially significant and ascribed meaning within a particular culture or time (e.g., Pakeha, Māori, African American, Black, White, Asian, Aboriginal). Ethnicity refers to shared identity threads and cultural traits in, or from, a specific geographic region (e.g., language, religious belief, ancestry, customs).

Be clear about whether you are talking about race or ethnicity. Race is a cultural construct and care should be taken not to impose racial labels on ethnic groups. Be specific as possible (e.g. Japanese American vs. Asian American). It is most respectful to use the labels used by people themselves although this might not be appropriate if someone self describes with pejorative or denigratory terms.

Both racial and ethnic groups are proper nouns and should be capitalised. The words “Indigenous” and “Indigenous People” are also capitalised. Do not hyphenate multiword terms.

Further information and examples of bias free language when discussing racial and ethnic identity can be found on the APA Style website.

Age

Age is often reported when describing participants in the Methods section of a research paper, however as with other descriptors, consider whether it is necessary to mention age. Some age descriptors are gendered (e.g., girl, boy) so consider whether these are inclusive and unbiased. Terms such as “older persons”, “older patients”, or “people 65 years and older” are preferred over terms such as “senior citizens” or “elderly” which can connotate a stereotype or suggest that this group is not part of society but set apart.

Take care when describing older people not to use stigmatising or negative language that suggests age is a kind of disability or undesirable condition.

Further information and examples of bias free language when discussing age can be found on the APA Style website.

Diverse needs

People with diverse needs, often described as disability, is another area of language that frequently evolves so it is important to take a little time to familiarise yourself with current terms in order to write with respect and inclusivity. Diverse needs is a broad area that encompasses diverse groups of people that self-describe with specific terms. If possible and appropriate, use the same terms a person uses to self-describe although this might not be appropriate if someone self-describes with pejorative or denigratory terms.

It is generally a good idea to clearly define what is meant by the terms used in your writing and it is important to be specific. Avoid euphemisms (e.g., special needs, physically challenged, handi-capable) as many people with diverse needs consider these patronising.

Further information and examples of bias free language when discussing diverse needs and disability can be found on the APA Style website.